Theme 1 (Pre): Theory of knowledge and theory of science

1. In the preface to the second edition of "Critique of Pure Reason" (page B xvi) Kant says: "Thus far it has been assumed that all our cognition must conform to objects. On that presupposition, however, all our attempts to establish something about them a priori, by means of concepts through which our cognition would be expanded, have come to nothing. Let us, therefore, try to find out by experiment whether we shall not make better progress in the problems of metaphysics if we assume that objects must conform to our cognition." How are we to understand this?

A priori knowledge, i.e. the knowledge originating independently of experience, brings limitations with itself and hence sciences get continuously stuck with such a reasoning. Kant states that in case of such limitations knowledge must be achieved in other ways. In contrary to the theoretical a priori reasoning can the a posteriori reasoning be found, i.e. the knowledge dependent on experience. Due to its practical nature it enables to attain at least convergence in sciences, even if not completeness to which fundamental sciences are heavily bound to. Furthermore and despite of its speculative nature such a practical reasoning is useful to the public as it will be used to prove the correctness of a priori reasoning and hence can be seen as a root of criticism.


2. At the end of the discussion of the definition "Knowledge is perception", Socrates argues that we do not see and hear "with" the eyes and the ears, but "through" the eyes and the ears. How are we to understand this? And in what way is it correct to say that Socrates argument is directed towards what we in modern terms call "empiricism"?

The dialogue between Socrates, Theatetus and Theodorus discusses the core question what knowledge is and how knowledge can be defined. In the conversation, which is mostly held between Socrates and Theatetus, describes Socrates himself as a midwife to men, who extracts theories from the wisdom of another and thus bringing their ideas to birth. As such a midwife Socrates clarifies that Theatetus needs persistence as well as the ability to deal with critiques in order to gain a "true-birth", i.e. a theory which proves to be coherent. Due to Theatetus approval Socrates, Theodorus and he discussing three different definitions of knowledge (knowledge as perception, knowledge as true opinion and knowledge as true opinion accompanied by explanation) which were still not coherent in the end. However and taking into consideration that all three definitions were proved to be unfound by one means or another the third definition made clear that knowledge does not consist in impressions of sense, but in reasoning about them, i.e. hearing or seeing with ears respectively eyes would be pure perception. In contrast, includes hearing or seeing through ears respectively eyes the reasoning about the things heard and seen. As empiricism emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory experience, in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or traditions (Baird, From Plato to Derrida 2008), Socrates' argument demonstrates very clear that pure perception is insufficient to achieve knowledge and thus his argument is strongly linked to the theory of empiricism.